Sports in the 1940s Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sports in the 1940s - Essay Example This paper discusses sports in the 1940s in regard to the life and career of one of the black athletes of that era, Joe Louis. In the 1940s, boxing was as big as other sporting activities like baseball. Due to the advancement of television technology, a huge number of fans were able to watch boxing/fights at their homes. Joe Louis was among the famous and boxing legends that started their boxing career during this decade. Just like the other players, boxing players were not over drafted including Jack, Louis, and Montgomery (Lindop & Goldstein, 2010). Louis held the boxing title since the year 1937 to 1949 before he was knocked by Robinson. Born in the year 1914 in Alabama, Joe Louis succeeded to become one of the heavyweight boxers in the world. Due to the poor financial status of his family, Joe Louis was less educated and involved himself with old jobs to help his parents and siblings. Afterwards, Louis gained interest towards cabinet making career. He temporarily attended Bronson Vocational School and during off-times, he could join violin lessons. Later on, a friend of Joe Louis suggested that he should try boxing. Joe Louis did not become an immediate success and he was defeated continuously in his first fights due to his lightweight (Freedman, 2013). In the year 1934, Louis won the national AAUL (Amateur Athletic Union light-heavyweight) title and terminated his amateur career astonishing fort three knockouts in fifty four matches. During his career, Louis defeated six subsequent or previous heavyweight champions: Max Baer, Primo Carnera, James J. Braddock, Jack Sharkey, Kersey Joe Walcott, and Max Schmeling. Louis who was nicknamed Brown Bomber achieved the world’s heavyweight champion by knocking down Braddock in the year 1937 and held this title until the year 1949. When the United States began its war with German in the year 1941,

Punk Rock Essay Example for Free

Punk Rock Essay American exceptionalism is a pivotal concept within the American culture. Stemming from a revolution, this theory shaped a new way of thinking within the United States that seemed far different from many other cultures. Seymour Martin Lipset used this concept to explain, â€Å"why the United States is the only industrialized country which does not have a significant socialist movement or Labor party. † This essentially explains why America is extraordinary. Punk personifies American exceptionalism with its distinct lifestyle to be different from the norm, and is surrounded by independent self-governing thinkers. The United States didn’t become what it is today because of law abiding and passive citizens. This is also a main reason why Punk Rock became so popular in America, and has stayed relevant to teens and young adults all over the world. People began to thrive on understanding the history of this nation, and take pride in the originality of our constitution, and way of life. Punk Rock adds another chapter in the long list of independent concepts and ideas within the American Culture. â€Å"America marches to a different drummer. Its uniqueness is explained by any or all of a variety of reasons: history, size, geography, political institutions, and culture. † This type of â€Å"American† thinking continues to inspire all kinds of musicians, but more so with the Punk Rock genre than any other. It was defines the core competencies of the bands, as well as that of their followers. This defining concept of individualism is also why Punk Rock has stayed relevant for all of these years. This country was built off this impression, as well as Punk Rock. It is hard to break down the barrier of individualism, because everyone is so unique, and Punk Rock simply unites and celebrates all different types of unique thinking. Through lyrics from bands such as the Romones, Blink 182, and The Clash, a colossal following came to Punk Rock. The lyrics almost became anthems to band groupies lives. In â€Å"The Shape of Things to Come† by the Romones, they sing â€Å"Theres a new sun Risin up angry in the sky? And theres a new voice Sayin were not afraid to die. One could argue that that way of thinking was backbone for what soldiers in the American Revolution stood for, and how the United States became to be what it is today. Of course American exceptionalism has its negative aspects to it that can be looked down upon. The United States has at times been exceptionally bad, racist, and violent. This cannot be ignored in the conversation of American exceptionalism. Although some of this demonstrates unfair and harsh governing, it shows that the American spirit still have that Punk Rock â€Å"drive† in them that fuels and strengthens them. This is also another reason why Punk Rock has, and will always continue to stay relevant in todays American Culture

Changes vs. Improvements :: Social Issues Government Essays

Changes vs. Improvements Intolerance, war, inequality and poverty - these are just a few of the issues found in the texts that we have read this semester. Even though some of them were written hundreds of years ago, the same problems still exist in our world today. Many things have changed over time, but they have not necessarily improved. Today, we are still involved in wars and violence with our continued presence in Iraq, Afghanistan and other foreign countries. We still persecute the poor by raising taxes and cutting funds to the programs like Medicaid and Welfare, while making it easier on the upper classes. We are very intolerant of the practices and beliefs of others whether it is homosexuality, different religious beliefs or opinions on abortion. Most of these issues have been problems in the past, and unless we do something to change them, they will continue to be problems in the future. There is no better place to find examples of today’s social problems than the newspaper. In the April 15 issue of the Creightonian, the April 14 and April 18 issues of the Omaha World Herald there were an abundance of articles about problems today. Despite the fact that writers and other artists were dealing with them hundreds of years ago, these problems are still on the forefront in today’s society. In the Omaha World Herald, there were many articles related to war. They were primarily about the involvement of the United States in Iraq. In one, it referred to a kidnapped American man and how he was videotaped at gunpoint, holding his passport to his chest and apparently pleading the U.S. to withdraw its troops from Iraq. In response, President George Bush’s spokesman said, â€Å"Our position is well-known when it comes to negotiating.† This seems to be a prime example of the idea of â€Å"One man, or many?† meaning it is better to sacrifice the life of this one man rather than risk the lives of many. This makes the Bush administration seem cold and heartless and shows our stubbornness when it comes to leaving Iraq. Instances like this reaffirm that it will undoubtedly take a major event for us to exit their country. Another article from the Omaha World Herald was about keeping U.S. troops in Afghanistan.

Malcolm X Essay -- Civil Rights African American Essays

Malcolm X   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Malcolm X was a man of strong words and beliefs. Some say that he was a man of hate and violence. Some also say that he was a smart man of hope and peace. Malcolm X‘s influence on people was felt more than it was alive rather than dead. Malcolm X was a major contributor to the black societies across the world. He fought for what he believed in and educated the young. Though his early life was full of up’s and downs he managed to, what some would say, â€Å"turn his life around†. In doing this he managed to gain the upper hand of the African American culture by giving them the hope that one day they would if not own be apart of, what he called, â€Å"white mans society†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little in Omaha, Nebraska. Malcolm’s father was murdered by a white supremacists group while in Lancing, Michigan. His mother was declared legally insane and committed to the state mental hospital. Because of that Malcolm X had no parental guidance in his young adult life. Malcolm X also dropped out of school also after the murder of his father, and from then on Malcolm turned to the streets for guidance. On the street he was he known as a hustler. He earned money by stealing and selling it back to the community or by conning others in buying bad products from him. On the streets, he was also known as Detroit Red. When Malcolm was Twenty, Malcolm X was sentenced to eight to ten years in prison. He was sentenced to prison because of breaking and entering, carrying firearms, and Larceny.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Prison he was given the nick name Satan because of his foul mouth. While in prison Malcolm taught his self to read. So while incarcerated he studied the N.O.I which stands for the nation of Islam. He first learned about the Nation of Islam from letters, from his brother Reginald, in Jail he became an ordinary reader to the other prisoners about the Nation of Islam. During his jail time he received contact with the leader of the Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad. As their verbal contact continued, they began to write each other daily.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Malcolm was released from jail in 1952. When he left jail he went to Chicago to meet Elijah Muhammad. There in Chicago he changed his name from Malcolm Little to Malcolm â€Å"X†. Malcolm said that the â€Å"X† meant to tell the non-appreciation of his slave name. Also it was to symbolize the missing of an appropriate Muslim n... ...iving, people still hold on to the words that he spoke when he believed that minority’s deserved something better than equality. He began to see and realize that whites are not devils and in order for the world to grow and for blacks to prosper everyone must come together. Malcolm’s life and murder enraged a whole community to stand up and fight. He gave people faith, hope, and courage that one day things would get better. Yes he taught violence and he was willing to do anything for his people, to see them live a great life. But it was just for that reason so that people could see that everyone had a right to live a life that in that time the white man lived. He was seen as a racist, but all people had a problem with a person from a different color so he was just as racist as the next man. He finally realized that being together was the only way to get through and prosper, but in the days of him speaking this truth, he was murdered. He was never given the chance to become something like Dr. Martin L. King and preach about being as one, because of the fear that people had of him. He was changing once again like he did many times in his life, only this time his time ran short.

Heat Capacity Ratio of Gases

Experiment 1 The Heat Capacity Ratio of Gases Purpose The purpose of this experiment is to calculate the heat capacity ratio of gases, Helium, Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide, and compare with their theoretical values. Introduction Thermodynamics is the study of heat as it relates to energy and work. There are various properties which all relate to each other when determining the characteristic of a certain substance.One of such properties is heat capacity, which is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Kelvin. Mathematically, it is ? = q? T , where q is the amount of heat absorbed by a substance and ? T is the change in temperature measured. When substances absorb heat, their molecules translate, rotate and vibrate due to the rise in temperature . As a result of the motion of movement of molecules in these modes, there is a contribution of energy towards determining the heat capacity of that substance.The heat capacity is, however, defi ned through constant volume (Cv) or constant pressure (Cp) with a relationship, Cp = Cv + nR and CpCv , the heat capacity ratio for ideal gases which is further determined by obtaining the pressure difference with atomospheric pressure in adiabatic conditions. That is lnp1-lnp2lnp1-lnp3. The energy contribution through the modes of movement of molecules is the total of their, translational, rotational and vibrational energies. For ideal gases, this can be calculated theoretically as a result of their classes, Monatomic, Diatomic and Linear polyatomic.Monatomic gases such as Helium, move in translation with the energy 32RT. Diatomic gases such as Nitrogen, move in all 3 modes with the energy 72RT. And the linear polyatomic gases such as CO2 move with the energy 132RT. The constant volume heat capacity for these ideal gases can be determined as a result of its relationship with these energies as the energy U = nRT and Cv is the derivative with respect to volume. i. e Cv = ? U? Tv . Th is leads to the following Cv for the 3 classes of gases; 12. 5 Jmol*K for monatomic, 29.1 Jmol*K for diatomic, and 54. 0 Jmol*K for linear polyatomic. Data Room Temperature = 16. 2 oC  ± 0. oC p2 = Room Pressure Room Pressure = 760. 84 mmHg  ± 0. 22 mmHg Helium Trial| P1 (mmHg)( ±0. 3)| P3 (mmHg)( ±0. 3)| 1| 300. 4| 75. 6| 2| 275. 7| 69. 0| 3| 281. 9| 74. 8| Carbon Dioxide Trial| P1 (mmHg)( ±0. 3)| P3 (mmHg)( ±0. 3)| 1| 290. 3| 34. 1| 2| 277. 8| 25. 3| 3| 283. 1| 40. 1| The values for Helium and Carbon dioxide were gotten from the other group who performed the experiment. Nitrogen Trial| P1 (mmHg)( ±0. 3)| P3 (mmHg)( ±0. 3)| 1| 278. 7| 63. 7| 2| 286. 6| 89. 7| 3| 270. 5| 58. 9| 4| 294. 2| 85. 0| 5| 285. 5| 89. 7| 6| 291. 4| 70. 0| 7| 268. 1| 54. 1| 8| 289. 0| 64. 8| 9| 281. 5| 65. 8| 10| 265. 3| 59. 7|Values in bold are the 3 best trial obtained. Answers to Questions 1) C, mathematical defined as C = q? T , is the heat capacity, the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree Kelvin. Cv, is the heat capacity per unit volume while, Cp , is the heat capacity per unit pressure. Both are related mathematically by the equation Cp = Cv + nR. The expected heat capacity for the three classes of gases are as follows Monatomic = 3R2=12. 5 Jmol. K Diatomic = 7R2=29. 1 Jmol. K Linear triatomic = 13R2=54. 0 Jmol. K The equations leading to the heat capacity ratio, ? , is summarized by CpCv= ln(p1p2)ln? p1p3) The vibrational contribution to Cv can be determined once the vibrational frequencies of the molecule is known. That is Rx2e-x where is x>5 . x = (NA hRT)v Where NA = Avogadro's number, h = Planck's constant and v = vibration frequency.2) Data obtained in the experiment is presented in the data section above. 3) Sample error calculation 2300. 42*0. 32+760. 842*0. 222 =817. 9962127 2817. 99621271061. 242+0. 22760. 842 = 0. 770793 275. 62*0. 32+760. 842*0. 222 =168. 9143383 2817. 99621271061. 242+168. 9143383836. 442 = 0. 79681 0. 7707931. 39482677 = 0. 55261 0. 796811. 26875807 = 0. 6280336 20. 552610. 327702282+0. 62803361. 268758072 = 3. 12 This was applied to calculate all errors in the heat capacity ratios below. Helium Trial| ? = ln(p1p2)ln? (p1p3)| Error| 1| ln(300. 4+760. 84760. 84)ln? (300. 4+760. 8475. 6+760. 84) = 1. 40|  ± 3. 12| 2| ln(275. 7+760. 84760. 84)ln? (275. 7+760. 8469. 0+760. 84) = 1. 39|  ± 3. 12| 3| ln(281. 9+760. 84760. 84)ln? (281. 9+760. 8474. 8+760. 84) = 1. 43|  ± 3. 12| Carbon Dioxide Trial| ? = ln(p1p2)ln? (p1p3)| Error| 1| ln(290. 3+760. 84760. 84)ln? (290. 3+760. 8434. 1+760. 84) = 1. 16|  ±3. 08| 2| ln(277. 8+760. 84760. 84)ln? (277. 8+760. 8425. 3+760. 84) = 1. 12|  ± 3. 07| 3| ln(283. +760. 84760. 84)ln? (283. 1+760. 8440. 1+760. 84) = 1. 19|  ±3. 08| Nitrogen Trial| ? = ln(p1p2)ln? (p1p3)|Error| 1| ln(278. 7+760. 84760. 84)ln? (278. 7+760. 8463. 7+760. 84) = 1. 35|  ± 3. 11| 2| ln(289. 0+760. 84760. 84)ln? (289. 0+760. 8464. 8+760. 84) = 1. 34| à ‚ ± 3. 11| 3| ln(265. 3+760. 84760. 84)ln? (265. 3+760. 8459. 7+760. 84) = 1. 34|  ± 3. 11| 4) Theoretical Cv for CO2 Translation = 3R2 = 3*8. 3142 = 12. 471 Jmol*K Rotational =22 R = 8. 314 Jmol*K Vibrational v1 = 4. 02 x 1013 s x = NA hRTv = 6. 02 x 1023*6. 63 x 10-348. 314*2984. 02 x 1013 = 6. 48 Therefore contribution = 8. 314(6. 48)2 * e-6. 48 =0. 54 Jmol*K 3 = 7. 05 x 1013 s x = NA hRTv = 6. 02 x 1023*6. 63 x 10-348. 314*298 7. 05 x 1013 = 11. 36 therefore contribution = 8. 314(11. 36)2 * e-11. 36 = 0. 013 Jmol*K v2 = v4 = 2. 00 x 1013 x = NA hRTv = 6. 02 x 1023*6. 63 x 10-348. 314*298 2. 00 x 1013 = 3. 22 This is less than 5. therefore contribution = 8. 314* 3. 222 *e3. 22e3. 22 -12 = 3. 74Jmol*K Cv for CO2 = 12. 471 +8. 314 +0. 54 +0. 013 + 2(3. 74) = 28. 818 = 29. 0 Jmol*K 5) Cp,m = Cv,m + R so Cv,m = RCp,mCv,m- 1 Average experimental ? CO2 = 1. 16+1. 12+1. 193 = 1. 16 Therefore Experimental Cv,m = 8. 3141. 16 – 1 = 51. 96 = 52. 0 JK While Theoretical Cv,m = 8. 141 . 29-1 = 28. 67 = 29. 0 JK Percentage error = 29 -5229*100 = 79% 6) Experimental ratio were precise but not accurate to the theoretical values as calculated Gas| Average ratio| Percentage error (%)| Helium| 1. 40+1. 39+1. 433 = 1. 41| 1. 67-1. 411. 67*100 = 15. 57| Nitrogen| 1. 34+1. 34+1. 353 = 1. 34| 1. 40-1. 341. 40*100 = 4. 29| Carbon dioxide| 1. 16+1. 12+1. 193 =1. 16| 1. 29-1. 161. 29*100 = 10. 08| Sources of experimental errors would include; leakage through the hose connecting the gas cylinder to the adiabatic vessel and the speed with which the brass cover plate is replaced after the gas expansion.The vibrational contribution to Cv is very much dependent on the temperature. At low temperature, the contribution is zero. As the temperature increases, the lowest vibrational energy is comparable to RT and therefore some contribution to the constant volume heat capacity. While at high temperatures the contribution is at its highest. Conclusion The experiment was successful as th e heat capacity ratios were achieved to minimal errors from the theoretical values. Reference 1. Thomas Engel, Physical Chemistry, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 2010, pg 21-22, 806 – 807. 2. Lab manual for Chem 2103, experiment 1. 3. Tip for Experiment 1 on CUlearn.

Reflection of Black Like Me essays

Reflection of Black Like Me essays The book I read was called Black Like Me and the author is John Howard Griffin. John Howard Griffin is also the main character, author, and narrator of the story. He is a middle-aged white southerner who wanted racial justice in 1959. His plan is to make his skin color darker and posing as a black man. He calls medical information services and tells them what he plans to do and they give him three names of some Dermatologists. The first name on the list he gives a call and gets an appointment immediately. He is exposed to ultraviolet rays and takes a medication orally. Within a week he looks like a black man. He then makes sure us has full support from George Levitan who is the editor for a black-oriented magazine called Sepia. This magazine is going to fund Griffins excursion. Everywhere he goes he is insulted and experiences difficulties. He cant find jobs or bathrooms to use that he had no problems using when he was a white man. No one takes his money and is bullied a round all the time by white people. Its been several days now and Griffin decides to travel to Mississippi and Alabama, which happens to be worse than New Orleans. He is very tired and losing hope and calls P.D. East who is a white newspaperman. P.D. East also is very opposed to racism. Griffin spends one day with P.D. East and they talk about how the legal code of the south is influenced by writers and politicians. After spending the day with his friend he ventures throughout Alabama and Mississippi. In Montgomery however Martin Luther King J.R. shines no light on the black community. Its called passive resistance and its a nonviolent way to deal with the racist laws. He starts to switch from a black man to a white man because he is starting to lose hope in the whole plan (this is the climax of the story). He will first go somewhere as a black man and then go to the same place as a white man and spot the differ...

Acid Deposition

Acid Deposition Introduction Nearly every element of within the periodic table has found its way into the atmosphere. As an ease when studying the element and there species composition of compounds in the atmosphere, Seinsfield and Pandis (21) suggest categorizing of the atmospheric compounds as containing halogens, sulfur, carbon or nitrogen.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Acid Deposition specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Probably, this classification rides on the fact that emissions into the atmosphere breakdown from original compounds into component species before exiting the atmosphere in a cyclic phenomenon. Actually, the cyclic process of substances is contained in the biogeochemical cycle of elements. The scope of understanding the cyclic processes comprises atmospheric movement across Oceania, land terrains, biospheres, inter alia; chemical transitions (quantity and quality) of the substances and rates of circulatio n and transfer (Seinsfield and Pandis 21). The geographical paradigm gives this subject the spatial and temporal references, since the transportation aspect is a vector quantity that can be justified through a scalar quantity of time and direction. Mehta (124) explains that in 1852, Robert Angus Smith made-up the term acid rain. It was not until 1972, when the concept of acid rain became familiar in the western industrial world. The term referred to atmospheric acidity levels (at pH above 5.6) that surpass normal levels for rain, fog and smog. The precipitation (deposition) of these acidic concentrates impacted on ecosystems, antiquities and human health. Acid rain was traced back into the gradual Geo-biological processes within nature and accelerated volcanic emissions (Mehta 124). The problematic scope of acid deposition gained wider magnitude when it was realized that it evolved into a trans-boundary affair. It was revealed that there was mobility of precursor elements emitted fr om the industrial heartlands in Europe and North America.Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Emissions containing precursors- sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen (referred to as NOX species) form the major bulk of acid rain. In order to effect solutions towards acid rain, a critical loads framework on emission cuts and ecosystem recovery was developed. Already, Europe has generated maps depicting critical loads. Driscoll, Lambert and Chen (28) note that in the US three forms of acid deposition have occurred. These are wet, dry and cloud or fog depositions. Through research, more than 200 sites have been monitored as experiencing wet deposition consisting of rain, snow, sleet and hail. Dry deposition consists of vapor, particles and gases. Some coastal areas and high altitudes have been exposed to dry and cloud deposition. Driscoll, Lambert and Chen (28) e xplain that the pattern of dry and cloud deposition widely varies spatially and temporally; thus, making it intricate to give consistent characteristics. Because dry and cloud deposition can accompany the other two deposition forms then researchers have resorted to bulk deposition measuring using open collector. Literature Review Tracking Acid Rain: The Case study of The Rust Belt, US Case Background The industrial heartlands of the US are located in the Rust Belt (Midwestern American). The Rust Belt extends into Canada within the Canadian Heartlands. EIR/LaRouche Youth Movement Economics Team (2006) describes the Rust Belt as covering Pennsylvania and New York (Western) this extends into Missouri. A quarter of the US populace resides within the industrial heartland. Mair et al. (361) indicate that heartland is at the center of a major transplant corridor for automobile manufacturers from the Asian and European world. These industrial plants were strategically located to give them a competitive advantage in production capacity and market supply. The interest of the Asian investors to set up automobile plants in the US was driven by the protectionist belief of cutting down their exports into America (Mair et al. 355).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Acid Deposition specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Mair et al (354) explains that the conceptual approach of the automobile plants was Just-in-Time to imply that the target was mass production to meet the demand within an area and the adjacent environs of America. Not only did the heartlands host automobile plants but also other electrical utilities and metal plants. While the metal plants are in the east; the automobile plants are in the west of the heartland. Heartlands greatly symbolize the economic capacity and industrial advancements achieved. Figure 1: Map of Heartland of North America Source: â€Å"The Industrial Heartland of North A merica† Lind (148) explains that long term rainfall data in the heartland area gave indications of acid rain. This has translated to heavy environmental damage. The extent of damage has contributed to a reduction in industrial development. This has translated into economic losses. In the far Northeast and outside the industrial heartland, the problem of acid rain continues to persist. Actually, about 33 percent of emissions causing acid rain in the down wind area (that is, far Northeast) traces back from the automobile sites in the Midwest (the source area). Lind (149) notes that economic factors have motivated the use of coal conversion and the combustion of sulfur containing coal. From an economic geography perspective, heartlands are tailored to receive raw inputs to facilitate industrial activities. Nevertheless, strategizing for the heartland location the risk regime and environmental impacts should be factored in. Lind (150) observes that effort to reach at a negotiated equitable solution between the source areas and the downwind areas have failed. Factors Contributing to Acid Rain Formation Acid rain has a set of preconditions that facilitate the formation process (Wang and Wang 2297). The concentration of the emitted precursor elements, compounds in rainfall, aerosols and their capacity to buffer and weather conditions are some of the contributory factors leading to acid formation.Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Figure 2: Conceptual Framework to Acid Rain Formation Figure 3: Acid Rain Cycle Source: Downing, Ramankutty and Shah (14) Airborne pollution due to release of Sulfur dioxide and NOX species is the primary source of precursor elements leading to acid rain. Once in the atmosphere, these pollutants undergo a chemical interaction with atmospheric water and oxygen (Downing, Ramankutty and Shah 13). In the presence of other atmospheric chemicals, sulfur dioxide and NOX species end up forming sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Emissions can remain within the atmosphere longer and a drift to far places prior to deposition on the surface. Prevailing winds play an important role in drifting the pollutants. Deposition of acid rain takes many forms such as dew, snow, fog, so on (Downing, Ramankutty and Shah 13). Use of fossil fuel, sulfur containing coal and biomass combustion is the common sources of acid rain precursor elements. Adverse effects of acid deposition include loss of forest cover th rough complex interactions, destruction of aquatic life and their ecosystems, loss of aesthetic value for monuments and cultural resources and human respiratory health risks Downing, Ramankutty and Shah 14). Emissions are released from large point sources like combustion plants were thought to have a localized impact. Increased concerns based on this premise led to the building of new facilities that have longer smokestacks, tailored to disperse the emission over a wider area. Large scale dispersion and distribution of acidification may be a regional concern. Acid Rain and Emission Cuts Milestone In the United States, the proportional release by factory processes, electric utilities and combustions are two-thirds, 15 percent and 9 percent, respectively (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 27). Moreover, automobiles account for over half of human related sources of nitrogen oxides. Electric utilities and combustion processes account for 22 percent and 14 percent of NOX emissions, respectively . In 2002, more than 50 percent of precursor elements release occurred in seven states within the Ohio River Valley (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 29). Five of these states dominate in the release of nitrogen oxides. The decline of air quality forms an indicator of adverse impacts of release of precursor elements. In 1973, the level of emission in the United States had highs of over 29 million metric tons, yearly. Within a period of twenty years since 1950 there has been a decline of over a half of sulfur dioxide due to the Amendments of the Clean Air Act (CAAA). In 2002, the emission levels were 13.9 million metric tons. In 1990, NOX species emissions had the highest toll at 22.7 million metric tons. In the following decade, emissions declined by 12 percent. NOX emission targets were set to decrease by almost 2 million tons within the specifics of the 1990 CAAA (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 27). Moreover, there are state initiatives meant to augment emission cuts locally (Driscoll, Lamb ert and Chen 230). There have been international efforts towards emission cuts. The first treaty meant for emissions cut came into place in 1985. The treaty was knowns as the Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions. The emission cuts were set at 30 percent by 1993 vis-a-vis the 1980 levels (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 30). Further treaties set the cuts at 80 percent with reference to 1980 levels. Further treaties on emission cuts in the decade beginning in 1990; have led to declines of sulfur dioxide and NOX species at two-thirds and a third, respectively (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 30). The LRTAP Protocol of 1999 introduced the concept of critical loads that led to the development of critical load maps within the European context. Analysis Figure 4: 1.0 Trends in Emission of Acid Rain Source: National Science and Technology Council (18) Figure 5: Trends in the Deposition of Acid Rain Source: Likens (19) Hubbard Brook Experimental Station The United States Department of Agric ulture Forest Service established the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest as a long-term research station on ecological studies. The research site is found in the White Mountains in New Hampshire. Research interests in the station were composition and profile of the forest, disturbance reflex and aquatic ecosystems. Hubbard Brook gained prominence across North America as the first to experience acidic deposition. Effects of acid deposition at Hubbard Brook reflect a forest ecosystem sensitive to acid inputs (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 32). Over time, experimental activities and measurements regarding acid deposition and the aftermath on the ecosystem have been the dominant focal at the Hubbard Brook. The lowering of sulfate concentration in rainfall has correlated with the rise in pH. Hubbard Brook has a long term inventory on precipitation chemistry. Over time precipitation records include bulk deposition date back to mid-1960s and wet deposition at the latter years of the 1970s (Dri scoll, Lambert and Chen 32). Conclusion made from the findings showed greater association between pollutant release levels of the precursor and the sulfur based acid deposition at the Hubbard Brook. It is thought that emission cuts at the source area would reflect linearly declines in sulfate deposition. The eastern United States has provided a clear indication of the association between emission of precursor elements and the wet deposition. Over time in the period between 1984 -1986 to 2002-2004 high sulfate depositions has declined significantly in the eastern United States (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 33). The scenario of acid deposition reduction experience reflects the emission cuts targets entrenched in the 1990 CAAA. Levels of nitrate or ammonium deposition have varied marginally at the forest station since 1963. Bulk deposition at down wind areas at Hubbard Brook has shown a direct association with the source area’s nitrogen oxide emission (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 3 4). Nevertheless, the association is feeble compared to sulfate. Inventories of nitrate emissions and the bulk deposition at the Hubbard Brook have had minimal change since experiments began in 1963. The results of measurement generated at the Hubbard brook have reflected results obtained elsewhere in the eastern United States (Driscoll, Lambert and Chen 34). Figure 6: Distribution Pattern for Sulfur Dioxide Emissions (in 1996) Source: The Adirondack Council (13) Figure 7: Distribution Pattern for Nitrogen Oxide Emissions (in 1996) Source: The Adirondack Council (13) Approaches to Acid Rain Abatement The Act on Clean Air gave the preference to market approaches towards sulfur dioxide emission cuts. Industrial plants were supposed to adopt and obtain allowances from the emission cuts programs. The market approach provides plants experiencing high emission scales opportunity to purchase sulfur dioxide credits from their counterparts whose emission costs are marginally lower. This ap proach has cost savings implications. In contrast, use of the command-control approach proposed through environmental regulations may not amount to the same. Moreover, there are econometric functions within the market approach intended to measure the performance of sulfur dioxide allowance. Assessing the level of cost (whether rising or falling) provides the indicator on performance emission cuts. On these bases, those plants that volunteer to use low-sulfur coal as an emissions-cut strategy, then the overhaul of the technology and decline in prices of sulfur containing coal have demonstrated the reduction in the marginal reduction of costs by more than half since 1985. This forms the main bases for reducing cost other than trading. The strength of allowance approach is the cost savings of up to US$ 800 million annually. The command and control approach relies on public awareness and the establishing of an obligatory flat rate of emissions. While it is imperative to consider the gai ns made by the market approach vis-a-vis the command-control; there is need not to lose sight of the overall necessity is not commercializing the whole affair but sustaining the health of the ambient atmosphere. The doubling of the two approaches to emission cuts may lead more effective results other than taunting of one. Arguably, market approach may be the only acceptable within a particular jurisdictional area. The fact that emissions and depositions drift from the source areas makes the sense that command control approach is more applicable for trans-boundary settlements on emission cuts. Conclusion There are categories provided for atmospheric compounds. Sulfur and nitrogen species are among the four categories. Emissions have led to cyclic atmospheric processes for nitrogen and sulfur pollutants. This has been described in the biogeochemical cycle. The impact cyclic processes have traversed terrains and water masses. This means acid rain has a spatial and temporal perspective to it. Acid rain was first conceived by an English Chemist, but the concept earned popularity after twenty years. This implies that the adverse impacts of acid deposition were not immediately perceivable thus the quality of the ambient environment is relative to placement and time. Acid rain has shown the ability to replicate the problem as well as traverse the space. Nevertheless, this property of the acid rain and its precursors makes it difficult to particulaandr opt for one of the emission cut strategy (market or command-control approaches). This is evident in the failure to reach at an amicable solution towards emission from the mid-eastern of North America source area and downwind in the Far East of the country. Based on the study argument most of the effort present alternative solutions towards reducing the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted to the air rather than absolute zero emissions. The market approach considered as a preferable fails to campaign directly for zero emissio n of precursors but rather lower. Anecdotally, with the increasing establishment of more industrial plants the intensity of release may be low but the number sources increases translate to escalation of emission of precursors. The role of the Hubbard Brook experimental outcomes is a clear indication that acid rain has a biogeochemical cycle. This puts the source and the downwind as important players towards providing solutions towards the acid rain phenomenon. Actually, the drifting of acid deposition indicates that a porous solution towards an environmental problem can lead transferred to a second party. Providing longer smokestacks for releasing smoke implies that the environment at the troposphere is constantly mobile and that the atmosphere is constantly circulating and exchanging matter across the space. In other words, the solutions towards the acid rain may not be transferring the emissions into the outer space but getting robust strategies to avoid the release of precursors at the source points. Solutions to the problem begin with the technologies applied in utilizing raw resources. In addition, industry players should be prepared to embrace technology transfer for the common good. The market approach demonstrates that players in the same industry can participate in distributing and sharing an environmental problem resulting in significant reduction of emissions. In the same vain technologies that prove workable towards lowering emissions can be shared as a way of corporate social responsibility, particularly in mitigating problems arising from emission release. The market approach demonstrates that solutions to most environmental problems are best tackled through integrated approaches than independent players taking individual actions. 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